Everyday prospective memory and executive function deficits associated with exposure to second-hand smoke.

This study explored whether exposure to second-hand smoke (SHS) has a detrimental impact upon everyday memory in two groups of non-smokers; one which reported regular exposure to SHS and one that reported never having been exposed to SHS. Thirty-four non-smokers who reported having been regularly exposed to SHS (SHS group) and 34 non-smokers who reported never having been exposed to SHS (non-SHS group) were compared on self-reports of prospective memory (PM: remembering future intentions and/or activities) and executive function (EF: those processes involved in attention, multitasking and decision-making). The Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire (PRMQ) assessed everyday PM lapses; the Executive Function Questionnaire (EFQ) assessed self-reported problems in EF; a drug-use questionnaire and a mood questionnaire were also administered. Two univariate ANCOVAs were applied to the PM and EF data, controlling for between-group differences in age, weekly alcohol use, anxiety and depression scores, and self-reported retrospective memory scores. The SHS group reported significantly more lapses on the PRMQ and more deficits on the EFQ than the non-SHS group. These findings provide new insights into PM and EF deficits associated with prolonged exposure to SHS in a group of non-smokers. Possible explanations and suggestions for future research are also considered.

Exposure to second-hand smoke damages everyday prospective memory.

AIMS: Prospective memory (PM: remembering future intentions and activities) is critical to everyday remembering. This study compared a group of never-smokers who reported regular exposure to second-hand smoke (the SHS group) with a group of current smokers (the CS group) and a group of never-smokers who reported never having been exposed to SHS (the non-SHS group) on objective PM. DESIGN: An existing groups design was employed to compare the SHS, CS and non-SHS groups. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Twenty-four SHS, 27 CS and 28 non-SHS were tested on objective PM. All participants were university undergraduates aged between 18-30 years. All participants were tested individually in a laboratory setting. MEASUREMENTS: The Cambridge Prospective Memory Test (CAMPROMPT) was used to assess objective PM. Age, other drug use, mood and IQ were also measured as covariates in the study. FINDINGS: The non-SHS group recalled significantly more time-based PM tasks than the SHS group (means = 16.3 versus 13.7, P < 0.001) and significantly more than the CS group (CS mean = 11.6, P < 0.001); and the SHS group recalled significantly more time-based tasks than the CS group (P < 0.002). The non-SHS group recalled significantly more event-based PM tasks than the CS group (means = 15.2 versus 11.3, P < 0.002) with no significant difference between the non-SHS group and SHS group (SHS mean = 14.3, P = 0.234); and the SHS group recalled significantly more event-based tasks than the CS group (P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Non-smokers exposed to second-hand smoke may suffer impairment in time-based prospective memory.

A short self-report measure of problems with executive function suitable for administration via the Internet.

This article describes a short self-report measure of problems with executive function designed for use in Internet-mediated research. In Study 1, participants completed the online measure (Webexec) using a browser but under laboratory conditions. They also completed a paper self-report measure of executive problems (the Dysexecutive Questionnaire; DEX) and three objective tasks involving executive function: reverse digit span, semantic fluency (unconstrained), and semantic fluency (constrained). Webexec scores correlated positively with the DEX and negatively with the three executive tasks. Further evidence of construct validity came from Study 2, in which Webexec scores correlated positively with both use of cannabis and prospective memory problems reported in an online drug questionnaire. Webexec thus appears suitable for online research with normal populations.

Subjective ratings of prospective memory deficits in chronic alcohol users.

Previous research showing everyday memory is impaired by heavy alcohol use may have underestimated the cognitive impairment of heavy users because drinkers consuming over the recommended limits for safe drinking have often been treated as a homogeneous group, often with a low threshold for inclusion. The current study investigated whether the reported linear relationship applies to participants consuming alcohol significantly above recommended limits. The everyday memory of 80 participants (43 men; modal age, 31-35 years) was investigated using the Prospective Memory Questionnaire. Participants also detailed their average weekly intake of alcohol and other substances. Current heavy users of alcohol (who consumed on average over 25 units per week) reported more memory problems than low (1-9 units per week) or medium users (10-25 units per week). Participants undergoing counselling for alcohol use reported more deficits than low or medium drinkers, but fewer than current heavy drinkers. Possible reasons for this were discussed. Strengths and limitations of subjective approaches to memory assessment were discussed as well as suggestions for future research.

Cognitive and psychomotor performance during alcohol hangover.

The consequences of alcohol consumption have risen high on health and social agendas in recent years. Although much work has focused on the physical problems associated with alcohol use, one theme that has emerged in alcohol research has been a focus on the effects of hangovers on functioning. This brief literature review specifically examines recent empirical investigations of the relationship between alcohol hangover and psychological performance and is tabled as an update to our earlier review of similar research (Stephens et al., 2008). A literature search generated 75 results on hangover and cognition (and synonyms) since the last published review. However, of these, only 4 met all inclusion criteria, such as establishing that BAL (Blood Alcohol Level) was zero at testing. Taking the findings of these newer studies with those that we reviewed previously, there appears to be real evidence of convergence of findings. There are now four rigorous laboratory studies, two less rigorous laboratory studies lacking placebo control and two rigorous naturalistic studies that indicate specific cognitive decrements in attention and memory during the hangover phase of alcohol consumption. Given this convergence, research agendas for increasing understanding of the cognitive effects of alcohol hangover should now switch from studies that routinely assess many cognitive functions to studies assessing the attention and memory deficits of hangover in greater detail.

Does cannabis use affect prospective memory in young adults?

The aim of the present study was to examine prospective memory impairments associated with cannabis use in young adults. An independent measures design utilising pre-existing groups of users and non-users was employed in which an opportunity sample of 90 undergraduates studying at universities in the north east of England participated. The number of prospective memory failures reported on the Prospective Memory Questionnaire and the number of location-action combinations correctly recalled during a video-based prospective memory task were measured. The number of strategies used to assist memory, level of anxiety and depression, and use of alcohol, nicotine and any other recreational drugs in addition to cannabis were also measured and controlled during the analysis. Analysis revealed no significant differences in the number of self-reported prospective memory failures; however, cannabis users recalled significantly fewer location-action combinations than non-users in the video-based prospective memory task. The findings from the present study suggest that cannabis use has a detrimental effect on prospective memory ability in young adults but users may not be aware of these deficits.

A review of the literature on the cognitive effects of alcohol hangover.

AIMS: Alcohol misuse is a prime social and health problem in the UK. This paper presents a critical review of literature on the performance effects in the morning after binge drinking - during the alcohol hangover. Several pathophysiological changes that both follow and outlast acute intoxication may give rise to alcohol hangover effects. We have identified 27 English language peer-reviewed studies that investigate aspects of psychological performance during alcohol hangover following controlled alcohol ingestion. However, the majority of studies had basic methodological shortcomings. Of eight laboratory studies rigorous enough to warrant serious attention, only two showed effects. We interpret these largely negative findings as evidence of an insensitivity that is intrinsic to laboratory-based studies of performance under the influence of alcohol. Several studies have investigated the cognitive consequences of hangover subsequent to naturalistic consumption, where participants have chosen what and where to drink. Although these studies have tended to show effects, participants were always informed at the outset that hangover effects were to be assessed, and participants knew which was the hangover condition. Under these circumstances expectancy effects have possibly contaminated the results significantly. Therefore, naturalistic alcohol consumption studies (and laboratory studies that did not employ a placebo) can be considered as being suggestive of hangover effects, but should not be interpreted as providing definitive evidence of such effects. In conclusion, although there is empirical evidence showing impaired performance as a result of the alcohol hangover, future studies should confirm these findings and overcome the shortcomings of previous research.

The impact of excessive alcohol use on prospective memory: a brief review.

Research into the cognitive consequences of chronic excessive alcohol use continues to grow. Despite this, little research has investigated what impact excessive alcohol use might have upon everyday remembering. An important aspect of everyday remembering is prospective memory (PM), which refers to the cognitive ability of remembering to carry out an intended action at some future point in time. The majority of the studies which have focused on what impact excessive alcohol use has upon PM in teenagers and young adults have consistently found that the excessive drinkers reported more lapses in their short term (e.g., forgetting to lock one's door upon leaving home) and long term (e.g., forgetting to post a letter on time) aspects of everyday PM, when compared to low-dose alcohol users or non-users. It is concluded from this review that PM deficits should be added to the growing list of neuropsychological sequelae associated with excessive alcohol use. The magnitude of the effects of alcohol on PM depends upon the amount of alcohol consumed and how long one has been drinking. Major limitations of these studies include their reliance upon the use of self-report measures of PM, the issue of polydrug use complicating the picture, the need to control for the co-morbidity of other conditions--such as depression, and better drug-screening methods. Therefore, further studies need to employ objective measures alongside self-report measures of PM, incorporate better controls for the use of other drugs and mood states, as well as extending the focus of the research to study what effect different patterns of alcohol use might have upon PM, e.g., what impact binge drinking has upon everyday PM. These findings have educational and applied relevance within the alcohol field.

Short-term prospective memory deficits in chronic back pain patients.

OBJECTIVE: Chronic pain, particularly low back pain, is widespread. Although a great deal is known about the impact that this has on quality of life and physical activity, relatively little has been established regarding the more cognitive effects of pain. This study aims to find out whether individuals with chronic pain experience memory deficits in prospective memory (PM), the process of remembering to do things at some future point in time. Examples of PM include remembering to keep an appointment, such as a visit to a clinic, or to perform a particular task, such as paying a bill on time. METHODS: The PM of 50 participants with chronic pain was compared with 50 pain-free participants. Each participant completed the Prospective Memory Questionnaire, which assesses three aspects of prospective memory (short-term habitual, long-term episodic, and internally cued), and records the use of strategies to aid remembering. RESULTS: In comparison to those not in pain, participants with chronic pain had significantly impaired short-term prospective memory, an effect which was evident even after co-varying use of analgesics and other drugs. CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide new insights into prospective memory dysfunction in people with chronic pain. Possible mechanisms for this dysfunction are discussed and suggestions for future research given.

Does excessive alcohol use in teenagers affect their everyday prospective memory?

This study explored everyday prospective memory deficits associated with excessive alcohol use in teenagers aged 16-19 years. Excessive and low-dose alcohol users completed the Prospective Memory Questionnaire, which measures self-reported everyday memory errors. After controlling for other drug use, excessive users reported significantly more everyday memory errors than low-dose controls.

Sex differences in the Poggendorff illusion: identifying the locus of the effect.

Extensive research has identified individual differences associated with sex in a range of visual task performances, including susceptibility to visual illusions. The aim of this study was to identify the locus of sex differences within the context of the Poggendorf illusion. 79 women and 79 men participated within a mixed factorial design. Analyses indicated that sex differences were only present in the stimulus context with the full inducing element present. This finding replicates recent research and provides qualifying evidence as to the locus of the effect. The findings are discussed within the functional framework of perceptual processes involved in extrapolating 3-dimensional characteristics from 2-dimensional visual stimuli.

Nonequivalence of on-line and paper-and-pencil psychological tests: the case of the prospective memory questionnaire.

There is growing evidence that Internet-mediated psychological tests can have satisfactory psychometric properties and can measure the same constructs as traditional versions. However, equivalence cannot be taken for granted. The prospective memory questionnaire (PMQ; Hannon, Adams, Harrington, Fries-Dias, & Gibson, 1995) was used in an on-line study exploring links between drug use and memory (Rodgers et al., 2003). The PMQ has four factor-analytically derived subscales. In a large (N = 763) sample tested via the Internet, only two factors could be recovered; the other two subscales were essentially meaningless. This demonstration of nonequivalence underlines the importance of on-line test validation. Without examination of its psychometric properties, one cannot be sure that a test administered via the Internet actually measures the intended construct.

Increased intensity of Ecstasy and polydrug usage in the more experienced recreational Ecstasy/MDMA users: a WWW study.

Recreational Ecstasy/MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine) users often take a variety of psychoactive drugs, but there is little empirical data on how these drug consumption patterns change with greater experience of Ecstasy. The aim of this study was to compare the polydrug usage patterns reported by non-Ecstasy users, novice Ecstasy users, moderate Ecstasy users, and heavy Ecstasy users. In a WWW study of 763 unpaid volunteers, 481 had never taken Ecstasy, whereas 282 reported they had taken it. The Ecstasy users comprised 109 novice users (1-9 occasions), 136 moderate Ecstasy users (10-99 occasions), and 36 heavy Ecstasy users (+100 occasions). Each participant also reported their experience with a range of other psychoactive drugs. The Ecstasy users reported significantly greater psychoactive drug usage than the non-Ecstasy users. The novice, moderate, and heavy Ecstasy users also differed significantly from each other in the use of cocaine, amphetamine, LSD, and psilocybin mushrooms, but not of alcohol, cannabis, or cigarettes/nicotine. Experienced Ecstasy users also took significantly more MDMA tablets on each occasion, and reported a higher maximum weekly intake. The increased use of Ecstasy is associated with more intensive patterns of Ecstasy/MDMA intake, and the greater use of illicit CNS stimulants and hallucinogens, but not of alcohol, nicotine, or cannabis. These results are discussed in the context of cross-tolerance and drug predisposition/preference.

Subjective ratings of prospective memory deficits in chronic heavy alcohol users.

Chronic alcohol abuse has a detrimental effect on retrospective memory. Less is known about its putative effects on everyday memory. This study looked at self-ratings of prospective memory (PM) (memory for future events). After controlling for other drug and strategy use, chronic heavy alcohol users showed global impairments in PM, when compared to matched controls. The underlying mechanisms are discussed.

Subjective ratings of prospective memory deficits in MDMA ('ecstasy') users.

Chronic use of MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine), or 'ecstasy', is associated with significant cognitive impairments, particularly in laboratory and field tests of memory for previously encoded material. Less is known about the effects of a history of MDMA use on aspects of everyday cognitive functioning-of which prospective memory (typically characterised as 'remembering to do something at some future point') is an important aspect. Self-ratings of prospective memory among 30 regular ecstasy users (taking the drug 10 or more times per month) and 31 ecstasy-free controls were compared. Each participant completed the Prospective Memory Questionnaire, which measures self-rated error frequencies relating to three aspects of prospective memory (short-term habitual, long-term episodic and internally cued); the scale also records the use of strategies to aid remembering. Compared with non-users, ecstasy users reported significantly more self-rated errors in prospective memory, an effect which was evident after co-varying levels of other drug use. There were no significant differences in the use of strategies to aid memory. These findings provide new insights into prospective memory dysfunction in recreational drug users. Prospective memory deficits may be related to the reported serotonergic and frontal lobe deficits in chronic MDMA users. It is necessary to use more objective tasks to assess putative prospective memory deficits in ecstasy users. Copyright 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.